A special case of the linear model is the situation where the predictor variables are categorical. In psychological research this usually reflects experimental design where the independent variables are multiple levels of some experimental manipulation (e.g., drug administration, recall instructions, etc.)
The first 5 examples are adapted from the guide to S+ developed by TAs for Roger Ratcliff. For more detail on data entry consult that guide. The last three examples discuss how to reorganize the data from a standard data frame into one appropriate for within subject analyses. For this discussion, I assume that appropriate data files have been created in a text editor and saved in a subjects x variables table.
Example 1: Three levels of drug were administered to 18 subjects. Do descriptive statistics on the groups, and then do a one way analysis of variance. The ANOVA command is aov:
aov.ex1= aov(Alertness~Dosage,data=ex1)It is important to note the order of the arguments. The first argument is always the dependent variable (Alertness ). It is followed by the tilde symbol (~) and the independent variable(s). The final argument for aov is the name of the data structure that is being analyzed. aov.ex1 is the name of the structure you want the analysis to store. This general format will hold true for all ANOVAs you will conduct. The results of the ANOVA can be seen with the summary command:
#tell where the data come from datafilename="http://personality-project.org/R/datasets/R.appendix1.data" data.ex1=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table aov.ex1 = aov(Alertness~Dosage,data=data.ex1) #do the analysis of variance summary(aov.ex1) #show the summary table print(model.tables(aov.ex1,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell boxplot(Alertness~Dosage,data=data.ex1) #graphical summaryproduces this output
> datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix1.data"
> data.ex1=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table
>
> aov.ex1 = aov(Alertness~Dosage,data=data.ex1) #do the analysis of variance
> summary(aov.ex1) #show the summary table
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Dosage 2 426.25 213.12 8.7887 0.002977 **
Residuals 15 363.75 24.25
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
> print(model.tables(aov.ex1,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell
Tables of means
Grand mean
27.66667
Dosage
a b c
32.5 28.2 19.2
rep 6.0 8.0 4.0
>
datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix2.data" data.ex2=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table data.ex2 #show the data aov.ex2 = aov(Alertness~Gender*Dosage,data=data.ex2) #do the analysis of variance summary(aov.ex2) #show the summary table print(model.tables(aov.ex2,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell boxplot(Alertness~Dosage*Gender,data=data.ex2) #graphical summary of means of the 4 cellsThe output should look like the following:
> datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix2.data"
> data.example2=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table
> data.example2 #show the data
Observation Gender Dosage Alertness
1 1 m a 8
2 2 m a 12
3 3 m a 13
4 4 m a 12
5 5 m b 6
6 6 m b 7
7 7 m b 23
8 8 m b 14
9 9 f a 15
10 10 f a 12
11 11 f a 22
12 12 f a 14
13 13 f b 15
14 14 f b 12
15 15 f b 18
16 16 f b 22
> aov.ex2 = aov(Alertness~Gender*Dosage,data=data.example2) #do the analysis of variance
> summary(aov.ex2) #show the summary table
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Gender 1 76.562 76.562 2.9518 0.1115
Dosage 1 5.062 5.062 0.1952 0.6665
Gender:Dosage 1 0.063 0.063 0.0024 0.9617
Residuals 12 311.250 25.938
> print(model.tables(aov.ex2,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell
Tables of means
Grand mean
14.0625
Gender
f m
16.2 11.9
rep 8.0 8.0
Dosage
a b
13.5 14.6
rep 8.0 8.0
Gender:Dosage
Dosage
Gender a b
f 15.75 16.75
rep 4.00 4.00
m 11.25 12.50
rep 4.00 4.00
The generalization to n way ANOVA is straightforward.
Five subjects are asked to memorize a list of words. The words on this list are of three types: positive words, negative words and neutral words. Their recall data by word type is displayed in Appendix III. Note that there is a single factor (Valence ) with three levels (negative, neutral and positive). In addition, there is also a random factor Subject . Create a data file ex3 that contains this data. Again it is important that each observation appears on an individual line! Note that this is not the standard way of thinking about data. Example 6 will show how to transform data from the standard data table into this form.
#Run the analysis:
datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix3.data"
data.ex3=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table
data.ex3 #show the data
aov.ex3 = aov(Recall~Valence+Error(Subject/Valence),data.ex3)
summary(aov.ex3)
print(model.tables(aov.ex3,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell
boxplot(Recall~Valence,data=data.ex3) #graphical output
Because Valence is crossed with the random factor Subject (i.e., every subject sees all three types of words), you must specify the error term for Valence , which in this case is Subject by Valence . Do this by adding the termError(Subject/Valence) to the factor Valence , as shown above.
The output will look like:
> datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix3.data"
> data.ex3=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table
> data.ex3 #show the data
Observation Subject Valence Recall
1 1 Jim Neg 32
2 2 Jim Neu 15
3 3 Jim Pos 45
4 4 Victor Neg 30
5 5 Victor Neu 13
6 6 Victor Pos 40
7 7 Faye Neg 26
8 8 Faye Neu 12
9 9 Faye Pos 42
10 10 Ron Neg 22
11 11 Ron Neu 10
12 12 Ron Pos 38
13 13 Jason Neg 29
14 14 Jason Neu 8
15 15 Jason Pos 35
> aov.ex3 = aov(Recall~Valence+Error(Subject/Valence),data.ex3)
> summary(aov.ex3)
Error: Subject
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Residuals 4 105.067 26.267
Error: Subject:Valence
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Valence 2 2029.73 1014.87 189.11 1.841e-07 ***
Residuals 8 42.93 5.37
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
> print(model.tables(aov.ex3,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell
Tables of means
Grand mean
26.46667
Valence
Valence
Neg Neu Pos
27.8 11.6 40.0
The analysis of between-subjects factors will appear first (there are none in this case), followed by the within-subjects factors. Note that the p value for Valence is displayed in exponential notation; this occurs when the p value is extremely low, as it is in this case (approximately .00000018).
Appendix IV contains the data from an experiment where five subjects were tested on their recall of words of differing valences. There were two different memory tasks: free or cued recall. Thus, there were 2 independent factors: Valence (3 levels) and Task (2 levels). Again, Subject serves as a random factor. Enter the data into a file entitled ex4 and run the following analysis:
In this example, Subject is crossed with both Task and Valence , so you must specify three different error terms: one forTask , one for Valence and one for the interaction between the two. Fortunately, R is smart enough to divide up the within-subjects error term properly as long as you specify it in your command. The commands are:
datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix4.data" data.ex4=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table data.ex4 #show the data aov.ex4=aov(Recall~(Task*Valence)+Error(Subject/(Task*Valence)),data.ex4 ) summary(aov.ex4) print(model.tables(aov.ex4,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell boxplot(Recall~Task*Valence,data=data.ex4) #graphical summary of means of the 6 cellsresults in the following output
> datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix4.data"
> data.example4=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table
> data.example4 #show the data
Observation Subject Task Valence Recall
1 1 Jim Free Neg 8
2 2 Jim Free Neu 9
3 3 Jim Free Pos 5
4 4 Jim Cued Neg 7
5 5 Jim Cued Neu 9
6 6 Jim Cued Pos 10
7 7 Victor Free Neg 12
8 8 Victor Free Neu 13
9 9 Victor Free Pos 14
10 10 Victor Cued Neg 16
11 11 Victor Cued Neu 13
12 12 Victor Cued Pos 14
13 13 Faye Free Neg 13
14 14 Faye Free Neu 13
15 15 Faye Free Pos 12
16 16 Faye Cued Neg 15
17 17 Faye Cued Neu 16
18 18 Faye Cued Pos 14
19 19 Ron Free Neg 12
20 20 Ron Free Neu 14
21 21 Ron Free Pos 15
22 22 Ron Cued Neg 17
23 23 Ron Cued Neu 18
24 24 Ron Cued Pos 20
25 25 Jason Free Neg 6
26 26 Jason Free Neu 7
27 27 Jason Free Pos 9
28 28 Jason Cued Neg 4
29 29 Jason Cued Neu 9
30 30 Jason Cued Pos 10
> aov.ex4=aov(Recall~(Task*Valence)+Error(Subject/(Task*Valence)),data.example4 )
>
> summary(aov.ex4)
Error: Subject
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Residuals 4 349.13 87.28
Error: Subject:Task
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Task 1 30.0000 30.0000 7.3469 0.05351 .
Residuals 4 16.3333 4.0833
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: Subject:Valence
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Valence 2 9.8000 4.9000 1.4591 0.2883
Residuals 8 26.8667 3.3583
Error: Subject:Task:Valence
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Task:Valence 2 1.4000 0.7000 0.2907 0.7553
Residuals 8 19.2667 2.4083
> print(model.tables(aov.ex4,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell
Tables of means
Grand mean
11.8
Task
Cued Free
12.8 10.8
rep 15.0 15.0
Valence
Neg Neu Pos
11 12.1 12.3
rep 10 10.0 10.0
Task:Valence
Valence
Task Neg Neu Pos
Cued 11.8 13.0 13.6
rep 5.0 5.0 5.0
Free 10.2 11.2 11.0
rep 5.0 5.0 5.0
datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix5.data" data.ex5=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table data.ex5 #show the data aov.ex5 = aov(Recall~(Task*Valence*Gender*Dosage)+Error(Subject/(Task*Valence))+(Gender*Dosage),data.ex5 ) summary(aov.ex5) print(model.tables(aov.ex5,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell boxplot(Recall~Task*Valence*Gender*Dosage,data=data.ex5) #graphical summary of means of the 36 cells boxplot(Recall~Task*Valence*Dosage,data=data.ex5) #graphical summary of means of 18 cellsShould result in the following (extensive) output:
> datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/R.appendix5.data"
> data.example5=read.table(datafilename,header=T) #read the data into a table
> data.example5 #show the data
Obs Subject Gender Dosage Task Valence Recall
1 1 A M A F Neg 8
2 2 A M A F Neu 9
3 3 A M A F Pos 5
4 4 A M A C Neg 7
5 5 A M A C Neu 9
6 6 A M A C Pos 10
7 7 B M A F Neg 12
8 8 B M A F Neu 13
9 9 B M A F Pos 14
10 10 B M A C Neg 16
... SNIP ....
100 100 Q F C C Neg 17
101 101 Q F C C Neu 19
102 102 Q F C C Pos 19
103 103 R F C F Neg 19
104 104 R F C F Neu 17
105 105 R F C F Pos 19
106 106 R F C C Neg 22
107 107 R F C C Neu 21
108 108 R F C C Pos 20
> aov.ex5=aov.ex5 = aov(Recall~(Task*Valence*Gender*Dosage)+Error(Subject/(Task*Valence))+(Gender*Dosage),data.example5 )
>
> summary(aov.ex5)
Error: Subject
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Gender 1 542.26 542.26 5.6853 0.03449 *
Dosage 2 694.91 347.45 3.6429 0.05803 .
Gender:Dosage 2 70.80 35.40 0.3711 0.69760
Residuals 12 1144.56 95.38
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: Subject:Task
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Task 1 96.333 96.333 39.8621 3.868e-05 ***
Task:Gender 1 1.333 1.333 0.5517 0.4719
Task:Dosage 2 8.167 4.083 1.6897 0.2257
Task:Gender:Dosage 2 3.167 1.583 0.6552 0.5370
Residuals 12 29.000 2.417
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: Subject:Valence
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Valence 2 14.685 7.343 2.9981 0.06882 .
Valence:Gender 2 3.907 1.954 0.7977 0.46193
Valence:Dosage 4 20.259 5.065 2.0681 0.11663
Valence:Gender:Dosage 4 1.037 0.259 0.1059 0.97935
Residuals 24 58.778 2.449
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: Subject:Task:Valence
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Task:Valence 2 5.389 2.694 1.3197 0.2859
Task:Valence:Gender 2 2.167 1.083 0.5306 0.5950
Task:Valence:Dosage 4 2.778 0.694 0.3401 0.8482
Task:Valence:Gender:Dosage 4 2.667 0.667 0.3265 0.8574
Residuals 24 49.000 2.042
> print(model.tables(aov.ex5,"means"),digits=3) #report the means and the number of subjects/cell
Tables of means
Grand mean
15.62963
Task
C F
16.6 14.7
rep 54.0 54.0
Valence
Neg Neu Pos
15.3 15.5 16.1
rep 36.0 36.0 36.0
Gender
F M
17.9 13.4
rep 54.0 54.0
Dosage
A B C
14.2 13.5 19.2
rep 36.0 36.0 36.0
Task:Valence
Valence
Task Neg Neu Pos
C 16.00 16.72 17.00
rep 18.00 18.00 18.00
F 14.56 14.22 15.28
rep 18.00 18.00 18.00
Task:Gender
Gender
Task F M
C 18.93 14.22
rep 27.00 27.00
F 16.81 12.56
rep 27.00 27.00
Valence:Gender
Gender
Valence F M
Neg 17.67 12.89
rep 18.00 18.00
Neu 17.44 13.50
rep 18.00 18.00
Pos 18.50 13.78
rep 18.00 18.00
... snip ....
, , Gender = M, Dosage = B
Valence
Task Neg Neu Pos
C 10.00 11.67 12.33
rep 3.00 3.00 3.00
F 8.33 8.67 11.00
rep 3.00 3.00 3.00
, , Gender = F, Dosage = C
Valence
Task Neg Neu Pos
C 20.67 21.67 21.33
rep 3.00 3.00 3.00
F 19.67 18.67 20.33
rep 3.00 3.00 3.00
, , Gender = M, Dosage = C
Valence
Task Neg Neu Pos
C 18.00 19.00 19.00
rep 3.00 3.00 3.00
F 17.33 17.33 17.33
rep 3.00 3.00 3.00
datafilename="http://personality-project.org/r/datasets/recall1.data" data=read.table(datafilename,header=TRUE) data #show the data
We can use the "stack() function to arrange the data in the correct manner. We then need to create a new data.frame (recall.df) to attach the correct labels to the correct conditions. This seems more complicated than it really is (although it is fact somewhat tricky). It is useful to list the data after the data frame operation to make sure that we did it correctly. (This and the next example are adapted from Baron and Li's page. ) We make use of the rep(), c(), and factor() functions.
rep (operation,number) repeats an operation number times
c(x,y) forms a vector with x and y elements
factor (vector) converts a numeric vector into factors for an ANOVA
sums=data[,9:12] #get the summary numbers
stackeds=stack(sums) #convert to a column vector to do anova with repeated measures
#stackeds #show the data as they are now reorganized
numcases=27 #How many subjects are there?
numvariables=4 #How many repeated measures are there?
recall.df=data.frame(recall=stackeds,
subj=factor(rep(paste("subj", 1:numcases, sep=""), numvariables)),
time=factor(rep(rep(c("short", "long"), c(numcases, numcases)), 2)),
study=factor(rep(c("d45", "d90"), c(numcases*2, numcases*2))))
recall.df #show the results of stacking and forming the data.frame
#now, do the within subjects ANOVA and show the results
recall.aov= aov(recall.values ~ time * study + Error(subj/(time * study)), data=recall.df)
summary(recall.aov)
print(model.tables(recall.aov,"means"),digits=3)
sums=data[,9:12] #get the summary numbers
> stackeds=stack(sums) #convert to a column vector to do anova with repeated measures
> #stackeds #show the data as they are now reorganized
>
> numcases=27 #How many subjects are there?
> numvariables=4 #How many repeated measures are there?
>
> recall.df=data.frame(recall=stackeds,
+ subj=factor(rep(paste("subj", 1:numcases, sep=""), numvariables)),
+ time=factor(rep(rep(c("short", "long"), c(numcases, numcases)), 2)),
+ study=factor(rep(c("d45", "d90"), c(numcases*2, numcases*2))))
> recall.df
recall.values recall.ind subj time study
1 13 ss subj1 short d45
2 25 ss subj2 short d45
.snip ..
25 17 ss subj25 short d45
26 19 ss subj26 short d45
27 19 ss subj27 short d45
28 10 sl subj1 long d45
29 13 sl subj2 long d45
30 16 sl subj3 long d45
.snip..
79 21 ls subj25 short d90
80 22 ls subj26 short d90
81 21 ls subj27 short d90
82 17 ll subj1 long d90
.snip ...
108 20 ll subj27 long d90
> recall.aov= aov(recall.values ~ time * study + Error(subj/(time * study)), data=recall.df)
> summary(recall.aov)
Error: subj
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Residuals 26 1175.35 45.21
Error: subj:time
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time 1 1.333 1.333 0.2249 0.6393
Residuals 26 154.167 5.929
Error: subj:study
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
study 1 166.259 166.259 14.997 0.0006512 ***
Residuals 26 288.241 11.086
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: subj:time:study
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time:study 1 71.704 71.704 6.8592 0.01452 *
Residuals 26 271.796 10.454
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
> print(model.tables(recall.aov,"means"),digits=3)
Tables of means
Grand mean
18.53704
time
long short
18.4 18.6
rep 54.0 54.0
study
d45 d90
17.3 19.8
rep 54.0 54.0
time:study
study
time d45 d90
long 16.37 20.48
rep 27.00 27.00
short 18.22 19.07
rep 27.00 27.00
We can use this same procedure of stacking and forming a data frame on the raw data and consider replications as part of the design. I have written this code in a generic form so that it is (somewhat) easier to use for other data sets. The nex three analyses compare the effects of including the subject replication as part of the design.
raw=data[,1:8] #just trial data
#First set some specific paremeters for the analysis -- this allows
numcases=27 #How many subjects are there?
numvariables=8 #How many repeated measures are there?
numreplications=2 #How many replications/subject?
numlevels1=2 #specify the number of levels for within subject variable 1
numlevels2=2 #specify the number of levels for within subject variable 2
stackedraw=stack(raw) #convert the data array into a vector
#add the various coding variables for the conditions
#make sure to check that this coding is correct
recall.raw.df=data.frame(recall=stackedraw,
subj=factor(rep(paste("subj", 1:numcases, sep=""), numvariables)),
replication=factor(rep(rep(c("1","2"), c(numcases, numcases)), numvariables/numreplications)),
time=factor(rep(rep(c("short", "long"), c(numcases*numreplications, numcases*numreplications)),numlevels1)),
study=rep(c("d45", "d90") ,c(numcases*numlevels1*numreplications,numcases*numlevels1*numreplications)))
recall.aov= aov(recall.values ~ time * study + Error(subj/(time * study)), data=recall.raw.df) #do the ANOVA
summary(recall.aov) #show the output
print(model.tables(recall.aov,"means"),digits=3) #show the cell means for the anova table
#compare with the complete analysis
recall.aov= aov(recall.values ~ time * study*replication + Error(subj/(time * study * replication)), data=recall.raw.df) #do the ANOVA
summary(recall.aov) #show the output
print(model.tables(recall.aov,"means"),digits=3) #show the cell means for the anova table
> recall.aov= aov(recall.values ~ time * study + Error(subj/(time * study)), data=recall.raw.df) #do the ANOVA
> summary(recall.aov) #show the output
Error: subj
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Residuals 26 587.68 22.60
Error: subj:time
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time 1 0.667 0.667 0.2249 0.6393
Residuals 26 77.083 2.965
Error: subj:study
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
study 1 83.130 83.130 14.997 0.0006512 ***
Residuals 26 144.120 5.543
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: subj:time:study
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time:study 1 35.852 35.852 6.8592 0.01452 *
Residuals 26 135.898 5.227
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: Within
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Residuals 108 586.00 5.43
> print(model.tables(recall.aov,"means"),digits=3) #show the cell means for the anova table
Tables of means
Grand mean
9.268519
time
long short
9.21 9.32
rep 108.00 108.00
study
d45 d90
8.65 9.89
rep 108.00 108.00
time:study
study
time d45 d90
long 8.2 10.2
rep 54.0 54.0
short 9.1 9.5
rep 54.0 54.0
>
> #compare with the complete analysis
> recall.aov= aov(recall.values ~ time * study*replication + Error(subj/(time * study * replication)), data=recall.raw.df) #do the ANOVA
> summary(recall.aov) #show the output
Error: subj
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Residuals 26 587.68 22.60
Error: subj:time
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time 1 0.667 0.667 0.2249 0.6393
Residuals 26 77.083 2.965
Error: subj:study
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
study 1 83.130 83.130 14.997 0.0006512 ***
Residuals 26 144.120 5.543
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: subj:replication
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
replication 1 4.741 4.741 0.7208 0.4036
Residuals 26 171.009 6.577
Error: subj:time:study
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time:study 1 35.852 35.852 6.8592 0.01452 *
Residuals 26 135.898 5.227
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: subj:time:replication
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time:replication 1 88.167 88.167 38.153 1.563e-06 ***
Residuals 26 60.083 2.311
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: subj:study:replication
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
study:replication 1 16.667 16.667 3.8662 0.06003 .
Residuals 26 112.083 4.311
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Error: subj:time:study:replication
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
time:study:replication 1 0.463 0.463 0.0906 0.7657
Residuals 26 132.787 5.107
> print(model.tables(recall.aov,"means"),digits=3) #show the cell means for the anova table
Tables of means
Grand mean
9.268519
time
long short
9.21 9.32
rep 108.00 108.00
study
d45 d90
8.65 9.89
rep 108.00 108.00
replication
1 2
9.12 9.42
rep 108.00 108.00
time:study
study
time d45 d90
long 8.2 10.2
rep 54.0 54.0
short 9.1 9.5
rep 54.0 54.0
time:replication
replication
time 1 2
long 8.4 10.0
rep 54.0 54.0
short 9.8 8.8
rep 54.0 54.0
study:replication
replication
study 1 2
d45 8.2 9.1
rep 54.0 54.0
d90 10.0 9.8
rep 54.0 54.0
time:study:replication
, , replication = 1
study
time d45 d90
long 7.07 9.78
rep 27.00 27.00
short 9.37 10.26
rep 27.00 27.00
, , replication = 2
study
time d45 d90
long 9.30 10.70
rep 27.00 27.00
short 8.85 8.81
rep 27.00 27.00